Anita Diaz and Vincent May

Species which live at the coast must be able to cope with high atmospheric salinity, unstable surfaces and thin soils. Along the shoreline, they also have to adapt to the enormous stresses of waves and tides as well as the effects of alternately drying out and then being wetted again. In estuaries, flora and fauna have to cope with diurnal changes of salinity and temperature. Habitats show strong patterns of zonation from beneath the sea to beyond the high water mark (see Marine Ecology). Cliffs provide ledges on which birds can nest and where the enhanced nutrient levels often support a range of plants which would be threatened elsewhere by competition. Shingle and sand beaches, as well as salt marshes, are under serious local pressures from trampling, disturbance and development.

For its human inhabitants, the coast has always been a valued source of food, not only fish, but also shellfish and many plants. Many of our common domestic vegetables have their origins in species which grow along the coast. Wild Cabbage (Brassica olearacea), Sea Beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritimus), Wild Carrot (Daucus carota) and many herbs have coastal preferences, and many plants on the shore and salt marshes also formed part of diets, including Rock Samphire (Crithmum maritimum) and Good King Henry (Chenopodium bonus-henricus) . However, with the expansion of resorts and retirement to the coast as well as industrialisation and port development, many habitats have been significantly reduced (see for example Leisure Hours and Marine Resources).

Comparison of prints, photos, maps and charts along the coast reveals enormous changes to some of these habitats during the last two centuries.

The coastal habitats are the home to a wide range of animals, birds, reptiles and insects, many of which are rare or restricted to a localised range. As a result, almost the whole length of the Dorset coast is recognised in national and international designations . The populations and distributions of many species are not static. For example, the birds of Poole Harbour have been described by Pickess and Underhill-Day (2003), especially the rapid increase and decline of some species. Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) declined from 930 breeding pairs in 1978 to only 10 pairs in 2002, but the Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) which was nationally very rare before the 1980s now has 40 pairs on Brownsea Island. Avocets (Recurvirostra avosetta) which were rare visitors now arrive in internationally important numbers (www.pooleharbourstudygroup.org.uk).

(based on Barne et al 1996)

Within the estuaries and lagoons, salt marsh covers 798 hectares, of which drift-line communities cover 19 ha, the reed swamps 128 ha, Spartina anglica 559 ha and the intertidal communities 80 ha. Wet grasslands are important in Christchurch Harbour, in Poole Harbour at Keysworth and Lytchett Bay, in the Wareham meadows (204 ha) and The Moors (157 ha). To the west, only Lodmoor has wet grassland (2 ha).

Although the area of the coastal habitats, compared with the total area of Dorset (254, 200 ha), is small (2.6%), they are extremely important as a home for many of the county's (and the country's) scarce and rare species. Almost all this coast is designated for its conservation significance (Table 5) as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), European Special Protection Areas (SPA: under the Birds Directive) or Special Areas of Conservation (SAC: under the Habitats Directive). Most of the coastline west of Studland forms England's only natural World Heritage Site. Although this was recognised by UNESCO for its geology and geomorphology, the long-gone habitats and species recorded in the fossil record show how important this place has been and with today's species continues to be.

Species names

Throughout this description of Dorset's coastal and marine habitats, we have followed the convention that common names of species are given first, followed by their scientific name (in italics), for example, Cord Grass (Spartina anglica) . Once the full scientific name has been given, it is then shortened in later references to it (e.g. S. anglica). The scientific names of many species have changed since they were first described. In these cases, we have used the original name at the appropriate historical point, together with the current name, and then used the current name for all following references. For example, the first descriptions of Atriplex portulacoides refer to it as Obione portulacoides. This species was known for much of the record as Halimione portulacoides, so the first time we refer to it historically we cite it as Obione (or Halimione ) portulacoides (now Atriplex portulacoides) , but all subsequent references are to Atriplex portulacoides . For full descriptions, refer to Stace, C. (1991) New Flora of the British Isles.

Sources of information

The plants of the Dorset coast have been identified and described in detail since the nineteenth century (Mansell-Pleydell, 1874, 1895; Linton, 1900, 1919, 1925; Townsend, 1904; Good, R., 1948, 1984; Woodhead, 1994; Edwards 2002). There have been a number of wider and also more specific studies (e.g. Malloch 1993; May 1997; Rodwell 2000). The Dorset Environment Record Centre (DERC) is the repository of past and present records both at the coast and inland and the Dorset Marine Database provides current listings of marine species (www.derc.org.uk).

Since the Mansell-Pleydell, Linton and Townsend surveys, many plant species have disappeared and others have appeared. For example, Woodhead records that 132 species recorded historically in the Bournemouth and Christchurch area could not be found in 1994. This is largely a result of the urbanisation of the southeastern area of the county. Although Woodhead recorded over 900 species, subspecies and hybrids occurring within individual 1 km squares, only 4% occur solely at the coast. Of these, a small number (7) have been introduced (Table 2).

Elsewhere along the Dorset coast, there are many species which have either been introduced , for example, Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) or are invasive species.

The Main Habitats

Along the coast, many small woodlands nestle in the valleys and parts of the cliff tops are farmed. We have not described these habitats here, unless they form part of the more coastal habitats listed in Table 1. One habitat which is not specifically coastal and so is not included in Table 1 is the lowland heath, but this is such an important feature of the coast of southeast Dorset that no account of the Dorset coast should ignore it.

Lowland Heath

One of Britain's, and probably Europe's, most important habits, lowland heath , occurs at Studland, around Poole Harbour and at Hengistbury Head. Before the growth of Bournemouth and Poole in the nineteenth century, most of the coastal landscape from Studland around Poole Harbour and to the east of Christchurch was heathland. The Dorset heaths stand out on the earliest maps of the county as areas within which there were few human settlements (as illustrated by the map below) and yet they owe their origins to very early human occupation and continuous use since the Bronze Age.

A section of a 1925 Ordnance Survey map showing an area of Dorset heath (DCM).

All three of Britain's sundews, all the British reptiles, rare bird species such as the Dartford Warbler (Sylvia undata) and the locally significant Dorset Heath (Erica ciliaris) make this one of the most interesting of habitats. Lowland heath is coastal in location, but it does not depend on being coastal. However, wherever low cliffs cut into the heathlands, heath plants slip down the cliffs and become part of the cliff vegetation. Sandy cliffs, for example at Bournemouth, include not only the heather but also in their sandy areas the home of Sand Lizards (Lacerta agilis) of which 80% of the British population is found in the Dorset heaths. Although the heathlands are strongly protected today, they are the result of centuries of human modification of the landscape, especially following the removal of open woodland during the Bronze Age. The heathland is a landscape of disturbance, in many respects also a common feature of the coastline proper where natural disturbance by waves, wind and erosion and landslides means that many occupants of the coast have to adapt constantly to their changing environment (see Managing the Coast for examples of human adaptation to these changes).

Cliffs

Much of the Dorset coast is cliffed, with many former quarries providing additional steep faces especially in the Isle of Purbeck and on the Isle of Portland. The cliffs vary from steep much creviced hard limestone cliffs to very wet mobile clay landslides. The variety of plants, birds, insects, and animals is very wide. The cliffs and quarries are home to 11 of Britain's 14 species of bat. Much of the cliffed coast is designated as Special Area of Conservation (SAC) or Special Protection Area (SPA) under the European Habitats and Birds Directives respectively (Table 5). Much is grassland, but where former landslides have been stable for long periods of time there are small woods. In contrast, the constant movement of some of the landslides means that new bare surfaces are constantly appearing, to be colonised by plants which need more open spaces. Without this renewal of the bare surfaces, many of these species would be crowded out by the more dominant grasses.

There has been little detailed investigation of the cliff vegetation, but May (1997) analysed an unpublished 1980 survey by Gray and Durrell which identified many of the cliff plants. Gray and Durrell identified 283 species on the Dorset cliffs: over a quarter (27%) only occurred once or twice. They concluded that:

a. Many of the species found on the cliffs were common grassland species.

b. Many species with wide environmental tolerances, and common 'weed' species were also frequently observed.

c. Many of the species typified damp and/or clay soils.

d. A very small number of species were found only in coastal locations: Wild Carrot (Daucus carota), Bristly Ox-tongue (Picris echioides) and Buck's-horn Plaintain (Plantago coronopus).

Within the cliff habitats, individual species showed a marked preference for specific sites. For example, at Ringstead Common Reed (Phragmites australis) , Grey Willow ( Salix cinerea) and Colt's-foot (Tussilago farfara) occurred only on mudflows, whereas Daffodil (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus) , English Stonecrop (Sedum anglicum) and Nottingham Catchfly (Silene nutans) were found only on the steep chalk cliffs. In a survey of thirteen coastal landslides in Dorset, Saville (2001) identified 198 vascular plant species. The most common species was Colt's-foot (T. farfara). The next most common species were two grasses usually associated with damp soils (Yorkshire Fog Holcus lanatus and Tall Fescue Festuca arundinacea). Saville also showed that, because of the variety of cliff geology and landforms, there was not a consistent maritime cliff vegetation. At Emmett's Hill, for example, where there are high steep rocky cliffs, the vegetation was characterised by Sea Pink or Thrift (Armeria maritima) , Sea Aster (Aster tripolium) , Sea Beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima) , Wild Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and Rock Samphire (Crithmum maritimum) . In contrast, on more mobile parts of the cliffs around Chapman's Pool Viper's-bugloss (Echium vulgare) and Sea Mayweed (Tripleurospermum maritimum) were more common and Colt's-foot was often prominent.

Cliff tops, as well as abandoned quarries, are often marked by the bright red of Red Valerian (Centranthus ruber), especially along the edge of the cliff between paths and the edge itself. Some cliff-top species are very localised: e.g., Stinking Goosefoot (Chenopodium vulvaria) is found on eroded sandstone around rabbit burrows on cliff edges near West Bay.

Red Valerian on cliff edge at Ballard Down (May, 2001).

Because the undercliffs, some of which are quite stable, have been little affected by human activity and typically form a mosaic of microclimates and soils, they are often the home for some of Britain's rarer species, for example Portland Rock Sea-Lavender (Limonium recurvum ssp. portlandicum) and Portland Ribbon Wave Moth (Idaea degeneraria). Two other examples are the Lulworth Skipper and the Common Bee Orchid.

LULWORTH SKIPPER (Thymelicus action) . In Britain, this species occurs only on the central Dorset coast. It is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) species of conservation concern. Populations are declining across Northern Europe. It is one of Britain's smallest butterflies, a little brown thing first discovered in 1832. It is abundant around Lulworth where the larvae feed on tall patches of Tor Grass (Brachypodium pinnatum). This is the same species of grass that conservationists try to control by grazing in other parts of the cliff top grasslands so that it does not out-compete other high-conservation status plants such as the Early Spider Orchids (Ophrys sphegodes). The coincidence of rare species with different requirements obviously provides conservation managers with dilemmas about how best to manage habitats for biodiversity.

Specimen of Azure Blue butterfly from Dorset (DCM).

Other species which depend for survival upon the presence of other species, especially pollinators which may also be rare, also occur on the cliffs.

COMMON BEE ORCHID (Ophrys apifera) (see Image entitled "Bee Orchid at Bowleaze Cove") is an attractive plant pollinated by a bizarre method called pseudocopulation where the flower mimics a female bee and attracts male bees. The flower then attaches sacs of pollen called pollinia to the bee which then carries them off, hopefully to another Bee Orchid. However, as bees are rarer in Northern Europe than in Southern Europe, northern populations have evolved a safeguard against failing to attract bees – if no bees visit they can self-pollinate.

Specimen of a Bee Orchid at Bowleaze Cove taken by P. Fraser (DCM).

The cliffs are also a very important site for a wide variety of birds which feed either from the sea or from the land. The crevices and ledges of the cliffs provide breeding and roosting sites for gulls, Guillemots, pigeons and many other birds. They provide nutrients for plants which grow on the ledges. The food-web of the cliff communities crosses the boundary between land and sea, especially for birds such as the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). Peregrine Falcons nest on ledges and crevices in cliffs. This large powerful bird stoops down on its prey of pigeons, crows and seabirds at speeds of up to 200 mph (320 kph). A food web for the cliffs would show this species as depending upon food sources which can be marine or terrestrial. Although it does not feed directly from the sea, it depends upon the survival of land and sea birds for its food. If one becomes scarcer, it can increase its intake of the other.

Like the plants, birds occasionally occur along the Dorset coast in small very localised populations. For example, a few pairs of Puffins (Fratercula artica) nest on grassy cliffs near Langton Matravers in burrows, which they excavate. They feed on fish and crustaceans and so are entirely dependent upon the productivity of the marine ecosystem.

Headlands such as Portland Bill often act as the first landfall for migrating birds: both here and at Hengistbury Head there are bird observatories where volunteers ring birds. These provide long records of the regular migrants as well as the occasional visitors, such as Hoopoe (Upupa epops) and Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus).

A subset of cliffs = planted coastal habitats

The open land in the developing resorts was often planted to provide more exotic landscapes, and also to provide stabilising vegetation in areas of landslides and graded cliffs. The cliffs at Bournemouth and Poole, and to a lesser extent at Weymouth, have been planted, for example, with species which include pines (notably Maritime Pine Pinus pinaster imported from the Landes of south-west France in the early 19 th century), Common Ice-plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) and Marram (Ammophila arenaria ). At Bournemouth, shrubs such as Evergreen Spindle (Euonymous japonicus) and sallow (Salix spp.) were planted to provide stability to terraced and graded cliff slopes (May 1977). At Highcliffe Castle, Holm Oak (Quercus ilex) was planted in the 19 th century and extensive planting of salt-resistant grasses and shrubs formed part of the 1970s and 1980s coast protection scheme between Highcliffe Castle and Chewton Bunny (the county's eastern boundary). (For contrasts in the vegetation of this part of the Dorset coast, see for example database ID nos. 2070, 2173, 2254, 2255, 2258, 3588). There has been very little planting in the estuarine or dune habitats, apart from some localised planting of Marram (A. arenaria) at Studland.

Beaches and dunes

On Chesil beach, the shingle is the home of plants which have to cope with very adverse conditions, washed by waves, often cloaked in sea salt from spray, arid (because water percolates very easily into the shingle) and with virtually no development of soils. Yet, here are some of the coast's most interesting and rarest species. Little Terns nest here.

The Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) is one of Britain's rarest breeding seabirds. There are now over 2000 pairs (in Britain) and so it is thought to be out of immediate danger. There is an important protected breeding site on Chesil. The bird nests on the ground in sand or shingle and so is at risk of disturbance by people using these beaches.

Shingle beaches, especially Chesil beach, have distinctive and specialised species, notably Sea Pea (Lathyrus japonicus) and Yellow-horned Poppy (Glaucium flavum). Sea Kale (Crambe maritima) is now common despite having been rare after being collected for markets in London. Shrubby Sea-blite (Suaeda fruticosa now S.vera) on the Fleet side of the beach is noted for the yellow of its stems colonised by a lichen Xanthoria parietina . Chesil is the only British home of the Scaly Cricket (Mogoplistes squamiger).

Because of the constant mobility of the shingle, individual plants on shingle beaches are always liable to disappear, but Colombe and Diaz (1995) recorded more substantial changes in the plant communities of Chesil Beach. Between 1990 and 1994, for example, the Cochlearia danica – Silene maritima community at Ferrybridge had gradually become dominated by Festuca rubra and Lotus corniculatus to become a F. rubra – S. maritima – L. corniculatus community. L. japonicus disappeared between 1990 and 1994 from more than 1 km of the beach west of Moonfleet Manor and the C. maritima – S. maritima community had also been completely lost from the western end of the beach. Twelve existing plant communities (Table 3) are dominated by a total of ten species only, all of which are able to cope with a wide range of temperature, water availability and salinity.

These species are typically pioneer species. In effect, this is a habitat of succession rather than one with any degree of permanence.

Lathyrus maritimus Sea pea on Chesil Beach, taken by Rev. E.V. Tanner (DCM).

Salt marsh, estuaries and lagoons

These habitats have the common characteristic that water changes from being fresh where rivers and streams enter them and become more saline towards the sea. Plants and animals alike have adapted to these salinity gradients or are restricted in their distribution by the amount of time when they are covered by water (Table 4).

Based on Ranwell et al 1964.

As a result, Poole Harbour has a wide range of plant communities, like other estuaries including Christchurch harbour. At high tide, Poole harbour covers 3, 500 ha in area. Its coastline is long and very indented (over 100 km). The most recent survey in 2001 (www.pooleharbourstudygroup.org.uk) shows that there are 39 National Vegetation Classification (NVC) communities in Poole Harbour, of which 22 are salt marsh, 8 from sand dune and shingle habitats, 7 are brackish swamp and two brackish grasslands.

Sea Lavender, Sea Purslane and Spartina anglica (May, 2003)

However, the area of salt marsh (440 ha) had fallen from 630 ha in 1985. This was partly balanced by an increase in reedbeds of 32 ha. The number of species recorded was 140 of which two are Red Data Book species and six are Nationally Scarce. The estuary has been affected by invasive plants, animals and shellfish (for details see http://www.swan.ac.uk/biodiv/poole/index.htm).

The most extensive invasion came at the end of the nineteenth century with the arrival of the plant known initially as Spartina townsendii (Townsend's cord-grass – now S. x townsendii) . S. x townsendii was first recorded in 1870 in Southampton Water as a male-sterile hybrid. A cross between the native S. maritima and the North American S. alterniflora (first recorded in Southampton Water in 1829), S. x townsendii spread rapidly and gave rise by chromosome doubling to S. anglica (Common cord-grass) which is both fertile, and larger and more vigorous. Lieutenant Mackenzie's 1785 chart of Poole Harbour maps only one significant area of salt marsh which is still a salt marsh today: Patchins Point. There was little change in patterns of channels, mudflats and fringing marshes until the end of the nineteenth century.

The colonisation of the mudflats by Spartina spp attained its maximum extent in 1925 of 774 ha. By 1980, it had died-back to 415 ha and today is probably closer to 350 ha. Spartina growth captured about 7 million cubic metres of sediment by 1925, but the reduction in the salt marshes produced a subsequent release of at least 4 million m 3.

The arrival of Spartina in Poole Harbour led to early 20 th century concern that it would affect port operations. Oliver (1916) commented that it was

“….probably no exaggeration to say that the Poole Harbour Board is up against the biggest fact in the history of the waters which they administer”.

He considered that up to 10 square miles would be raised by 1 yard. This would mean

“…. a loss of practically 31,000,000 cubic yards of water that would otherwise have found accommodation. ……harbour engineers…have the experience to judge how this depletion of the natural scouring force can be met by dredging or by the construction of training walls; anyway, the matter hardly calls for comment from a botanist”.

Some reactions to the rapid spread of Spartina are outlined in Box 1, but in recent years it has been recognised as being of considerable ecological importance and areas of Spartina salt marsh are protected by many conservation designations (Table 5).

The range of species using the estuary and the surrounding heathland is typified at Arne, where there is a large reserve managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). The heathland has large populations of Nightjar and Dartford Warbler, as well as all six species of British reptiles. Within the harbour, there is a diversity of wildfowl, including Shelduck, Red-breasted Merganser, Teal, Spotted Red-shank, Black and Bar-tailed Godwits. Ranging over both the heathland and the marshes there are raptors – Buzzards (all year), Hobbies (summer), Peregrine Falcons and Merlins (winter). (www.pooleharbourstudygroup.org.uk).

A more detailed summary of Poole Harbour’s ecology will be found in Humphreys, J. and May,V. (Eds.) 2005 The Ecology of Poole Harbour. Proceedings in Marine Science Volume 7: Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp.282.

TABLE 5 Change the title to read: (based on May, V.J. 2005 Conservation of coastal sites. In Schwartz, M. L. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Dordrecht, Springer, p.330.

The Fleet

The Fleet, a nationally important lagoon extends for 13 km from Portland to Abbotsbury with an area of 4.9 square kilometres at high water. It is shallow and, unlike the estuaries, has hardly any streams carrying freshwater into it. Its mean depth is 1 m, and the channels reach 5 m. Although some saline water seeps through Chesil beach, the western part of the Fleet is brackish. Further east in shallower parts, it becomes supersaline. Because parts are very narrow , producing rapid currents, many of the species have adapted so that they can cling to the seabed or rocks and can also cope with ranges of salinity from very saline to occasionally fresh.

Swans at Abbotsbury taken in 1940 (DCM).

Rocky shores

Rocky shores support a diverse range of ecosystems. The rocky shores of the Purbeck coastline characteristically occur as flat ledges formed by the weathering away of softer, overlying layers of rock. The ledges are particularly pronounced in Kimmeridge Bay where they project far out to sea and provide important habitats. The top edges of the ledges and the upper shore are the most exposed parts of the shore for marine organisms and few marine species can survive the long periods between tides. Two remarkable exceptions are Channelled Wrack (Pelvetia canaliculata), a brown seaweed that can dry to a blackened crisp and yet fully recover when the tides returns and Small Periwinkles (Littorina neritoides), marine snails that have evolved a type of lung that allows them to breathe air as they hide in crevices and feed on lichens.

The rock pools on the upper shore are often brackish because they also receive rain or stream water. A green seaweed Enteromorpha linza grows well in these conditions and upper shore pools are often filled with its vivid green ribbons. Further down the shore the tide covers the rocks for longer and in these, less extreme, conditions a far greater diversity of life competes for space and food.

The ledges and stable rock surfaces on the middle shore are dominated by tough brown seaweeds such as Bladder Wrack (Fucus versiculosus), Saw or Toothed Rack (Fucus serratus) and Knotted Wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum). Their fronds can themselves be a habitat for species such as tube worms (Spirorbis borealis) that live in white spiral cases, secured to the fronds. Similarly, clumps of the filamentous red seaweed Polysiphonia lanosa often grow on A. nodosum . They themselves are sometimes infected by an algae parasite called Choreocolax spp. that forms as soft cushions within the clumps. Dogwhelks (Thalis lapillus) hunt through the weeds, finding limpets, periwinkles and barnacles and then laboriously bore through their shells, liquidise their bodies and slowly drink their prey. Their prey is not always defenceless: large limpets may stamp their shells down on the foot of an attacking whelk. The most common fish here are usually Blennies e.g. the Common Blenny or Shanny (Blennius pholis). At low tide, these small but extraordinary fish can be found wedged between rocks, entirely out of the water, but they can survive these conditions for some hours as they are able to breathe through their skins.

The lower shore has a particularly high diversity of seaweed including species such as the red alga Corallina officinalis that protects itself from the many potential grazers by encasing its soft tissue in a hard crust of calcium carbonate. Also fixed to the seafloor are large populations of Snakelock Anemones (Anemonia sulcata) , several species of crab and the Common Brittle Star (Ophiothrix fragilis).

Shallow Waters

Where stable rocks lie under shallow water, they can provide anchorage for the largest plants of the sea, Kelps. These tree-like, long stalked brown seaweeds e.g. Sugar Kelp (Laminaria saccharina) and Oarweed (Laminaria digitata) form forests that provide food for species such as Blue Rayed Limpets (Patina pellucida) that feed on their fronds and shelter for numerous fish such as Rainbow Wrasse (Coris julis).

In deeper water or where the rocky sea floor is insufficiently stable for kelps such as at Kimmeridge Bay, the sea floor is occupied by colonies of simple animals such as Sponges, Soft Corals and Sea Firs (flower-like colonies of animals related to jellyfish). Sandy seabeds provide a habitat for burrowing bivalves and cover for fish such as Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and Flounder (Platichtys flesus). The water column close to shore is often more nutrient rich that the open sea and provides feeding grounds for many of the fish that can also occupy deeper waters such as Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and John Dory (Zeus faber).

Conservation Designations

Wildlife species and habitats are protected by a wide range of international, national and local legislation, mostly implemented through designations of the areas of land occupied by the species or the habitat. European legislation includes the Special Area of Conservation (SAC) 1992 European Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora as amended by the Act of Accession to the European Union of Austria, Finland and Sweden and by Council Directive 97/62/EEC (the Habitats Directive ) and Special Protection Area (SPA) European Council Directive 1979 on the conservation of wild birds 79/409/EEC (the Birds Directive ). The range of designations is shown in Table 5, but not all are statutory, and especially at local level depend upon voluntary agreements for their effect. In some cases, voluntary organisations such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) or the National Trust own land and so are able to provide protection to species or landscapes through their own management practices.